Behaviorism is a theory of learning founded on the hypothesis that knowledge is simply a retained collection of mechanical responses to external stimuli. According to behaviorism, learning is the process of trial-and-error testing of possible responses with external positive and negative reinforcement of each tried response. This schedule of external reinforcement conditions the learner to produce the correct response to the given stimulus.
The theory of behaviorism was formally established by John B. Watson in his publication “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913), which drew on animal behavior experiments by Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov. These experiments were an attempt to study psychology in objective, quantifiable terms due to frustrations with the subjective, unquantifiable descriptions of introspective psychologists. From the start, behaviorists have acknowledged the vast differences between the psychology of their study animals and those of humans and proposed that behaviorism should be integrated with the established field of (introspective) psychology to truly describe human consciousness. |
The enormous number of experiments which we have carried out upon learning have likewise contributed little to human psychology. It seems reasonably clear that some kind of compromise must be effected: either psychology must change its viewpoint so as to take in facts of behavior, whether or not they have bearings upon the problems of 'consciousness'; or else behavior must stand alone as a wholly separate and independent science. Should human psychologists fail to look with favor upon our overtures and refuse to modify their position, the behaviorists will be driven to using human beings as subjects and to employ methods of investigation which are exactly comparable to those now employed in the animal work.
Any other hypothesis than that which admits the independent value of behavior material, regardless of any bearing such material may have upon consciousness, will inevitably force us to the absurd position of attempting to construct the conscious content of the animal whose behavior we have been studying." – Watson (1913)
Behavioral psychology research identified two types of conditioning: classical and operant. Classical conditioning was exemplified in Pavlov’s famous experiment with dogs, where dogs were given food (a positive stimulus) and a sound was made (a neutral stimulus) simultaneously for long enough that dogs salivated (a naturally occurring response) the same amount for the sound alone as they had for the food. In this way, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus with a conditioned response. Operant conditioning is the use of positive and/or negative reinforcements until the subject develops an association between the behavior and the consequence.
Behaviorism in the context of modern education is largely operant conditioning, where learners are presented with a range of stimuli and given positive and negative reinforcement for each of their responses until they are deemed to have learned the correct behavior to each stimulus (Cherry, 2021). This rule-learning largely takes place in childhood and early education: rewards for using the toilet, grades on a spelling test, and language development.
The strengths of behaviorism come from its simplicity and roots in animal nature. Animals and humans are alike in their motivation by rewards and punishments, though the nature of those may vary greatly. The practice of conditioning comes fairly naturally to the educator as well, so it is easy to understand and implement. Finally, the results are clear and objective: was the correct behavior performed?
The limitations of behaviorism also derive from its simplicity and animal origins. Human psychology eventually grows more complex than can be molded by behaviorism. Behaviorism can be used to establish a pattern, but it requires additional cognition and critical thinking for that pattern to be extrapolated beyond the original stimulus. Behavioral teaching practices can lead to very siloed and narrow thinking. Behaviorism relies on there being a single correct response to a stimulus. Also, the use of positive and negative reinforcements is itself subjective to what the individual will find motivating. In a large class, it can be difficult to set a universal set of reinforcements that will motivate all learners. Moreover, behaviorist teaching requires repetition to practice the range of responses to the stimulus and condition the correct response. The number of repetitions varies between individuals. Setting a universal number of repetitions across an entire class will bore some and leave other behind. Finally, there are a number of other external stimuli that may confound the conditioning or simply the ability of the learner to perform the required behavior: physical or mental disabilities, chaotic learning environments, limited study time, illness, and more.
Behaviorism has several implications for instructional design, depending on the type of instruction and learner. For asynchronous eLearning activities, behaviorist principles of motivation and conditioning are very applicable in that learners need to be conditioned to correctly navigate the module, learners need regular, small reinforcements (positive and constructive feedback) to maintain interest and engagement through the module, and learning must be objectively assessed based on responses to stimuli (e.g., answers to questions), since there is no instructor present to observe any unquantifiable responses (U.C. Berkeley).
Additionally, an asynchronous module lends itself well to adaptive skill-and-drill repetition for the practice of the desired behavior in that many such exercises can be automatically generated and graded. The number of repetitions required of the learner can be adapted based on performance, where the learner is presented with the stimulus however many times is required for them to consistently succeed and “test out” of the module. End-of-Module awards, certifications, and badges can also trigger a social competitive urge to collect more awards for the sake of having more than one’s peers or potential for advancement based on having a list of certifications (e.g., qualifying for a new job or promotion).
For much of higher education, the limitations of behaviorism become more impacting, both in terms of its application by a teacher and in the expectations of students conditioned for behavioral teaching in earlier educational experiences. In higher education, an instructor may “break the rules” of behaviorism that learner have come to understand, especially as regards there being a single correct response that the learner simply needs to memorize and regurgitate in order to receive the reward. When this expectation is violated, learners can respond in a very strong, negative manner and feel a break in the trust needed between an instructor and a learner. This was well described by Vermunt & Donche (2017), who described four qualitative learning patterns, including reproduction-directed learning and undirected learning. In the context of this discussion, reproduction-directed learning is the pattern fostered by behavioristic instruction: reproduce the correct answer to get the reward. Undirected learning is really the lack of a pattern, often experienced by a student whose previous learning pattern no longer leads to success and they do not know how to adapt to the demands of their current learning environment (Vermunt & Donche, 2017). Thus, instructional design in higher education needs to acknowledge and account for this transition period for some students and incorporate activities that define and guide this process of transition between learning patterns and provide means for such students to still succeed.
References
Behaviorism in the context of modern education is largely operant conditioning, where learners are presented with a range of stimuli and given positive and negative reinforcement for each of their responses until they are deemed to have learned the correct behavior to each stimulus (Cherry, 2021). This rule-learning largely takes place in childhood and early education: rewards for using the toilet, grades on a spelling test, and language development.
The strengths of behaviorism come from its simplicity and roots in animal nature. Animals and humans are alike in their motivation by rewards and punishments, though the nature of those may vary greatly. The practice of conditioning comes fairly naturally to the educator as well, so it is easy to understand and implement. Finally, the results are clear and objective: was the correct behavior performed?
The limitations of behaviorism also derive from its simplicity and animal origins. Human psychology eventually grows more complex than can be molded by behaviorism. Behaviorism can be used to establish a pattern, but it requires additional cognition and critical thinking for that pattern to be extrapolated beyond the original stimulus. Behavioral teaching practices can lead to very siloed and narrow thinking. Behaviorism relies on there being a single correct response to a stimulus. Also, the use of positive and negative reinforcements is itself subjective to what the individual will find motivating. In a large class, it can be difficult to set a universal set of reinforcements that will motivate all learners. Moreover, behaviorist teaching requires repetition to practice the range of responses to the stimulus and condition the correct response. The number of repetitions varies between individuals. Setting a universal number of repetitions across an entire class will bore some and leave other behind. Finally, there are a number of other external stimuli that may confound the conditioning or simply the ability of the learner to perform the required behavior: physical or mental disabilities, chaotic learning environments, limited study time, illness, and more.
Behaviorism has several implications for instructional design, depending on the type of instruction and learner. For asynchronous eLearning activities, behaviorist principles of motivation and conditioning are very applicable in that learners need to be conditioned to correctly navigate the module, learners need regular, small reinforcements (positive and constructive feedback) to maintain interest and engagement through the module, and learning must be objectively assessed based on responses to stimuli (e.g., answers to questions), since there is no instructor present to observe any unquantifiable responses (U.C. Berkeley).
Additionally, an asynchronous module lends itself well to adaptive skill-and-drill repetition for the practice of the desired behavior in that many such exercises can be automatically generated and graded. The number of repetitions required of the learner can be adapted based on performance, where the learner is presented with the stimulus however many times is required for them to consistently succeed and “test out” of the module. End-of-Module awards, certifications, and badges can also trigger a social competitive urge to collect more awards for the sake of having more than one’s peers or potential for advancement based on having a list of certifications (e.g., qualifying for a new job or promotion).
For much of higher education, the limitations of behaviorism become more impacting, both in terms of its application by a teacher and in the expectations of students conditioned for behavioral teaching in earlier educational experiences. In higher education, an instructor may “break the rules” of behaviorism that learner have come to understand, especially as regards there being a single correct response that the learner simply needs to memorize and regurgitate in order to receive the reward. When this expectation is violated, learners can respond in a very strong, negative manner and feel a break in the trust needed between an instructor and a learner. This was well described by Vermunt & Donche (2017), who described four qualitative learning patterns, including reproduction-directed learning and undirected learning. In the context of this discussion, reproduction-directed learning is the pattern fostered by behavioristic instruction: reproduce the correct answer to get the reward. Undirected learning is really the lack of a pattern, often experienced by a student whose previous learning pattern no longer leads to success and they do not know how to adapt to the demands of their current learning environment (Vermunt & Donche, 2017). Thus, instructional design in higher education needs to acknowledge and account for this transition period for some students and incorporate activities that define and guide this process of transition between learning patterns and provide means for such students to still succeed.
References
- Cherry, K. (2021, February 20). History and Key Concepts of Behavioral Psychology. verywell mind. Retrieved October 3, 2021, from https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183.
- Vermunt, J. D., & Donche, V. (2017). A learning patterns perspective on student learning in higher education: state of the art and moving forward. Educational psychology review, 29(2), 269-299.
- Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological review, 20(2), 158.
- University of California - Berkeley. (n.d.). Behaviorism. Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center. Retrieved October 3, 2021, from https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/behaviorism/